Table 5 Adjusted odds ratios for the association between risk factors and serum 25(OH)D levels of < 10 ng/mL, 10 to < 20 ng/mL, and 20 to < 30 ng/mL compared with the reference group (≥ 30 ng/mL)

Sex (male)

1

2.212 (1.351–3.622) ^*

1.937 (1.204–3.117) ^*

0.470 (0.170–1.300)

 < 0.001

Age group

 < 0.001

 20–29 vs ≥ 60

1

N/A

2.171 (0.199–23.697)

N/A

 30–39 vs ≥ 60

1

3.656 (1.070–12.491) ^*

4.686 (1.422–15.441) ^*

11.736 (2.124–64.850) ^*

 40–49 vs ≥ 60

1

4.496 (1.775–11.387) ^*

7.627 (3.135–18.557) ^*

13.978 (3.449–56.660) ^*

 50–59 vs ≥ 60

1

3.187 (1.844–5.509) ^*

4.376 (2.577–7.431) ^*

5.868 (1.970–17.477) ^*

Season

0.002

 Spring vs Winter

1

0.428 (0.223–0.821) ^*

0.510 (0.279–0.933)

0.423 (0.160–1.114)

 Summer vs Winter

1

0.922 (0.470–1.809)

0.621 (0.321–1.202)

0.149 (0.037–0.599)^*

 Fall vs Winter

1

1.065 (0.540–2.103)

0.676 (0.347–1.320)

0.235 (0.065–0.844)^*

DEXA

0.274

 Normal vs Osteoporosis

1

1.037 (0.460–2.337)

1.770 (0.766–4.093)

N/A

 Osteopenia vs Osteoporosis

1

0.795 (0.341–1.853)

1.150 (0.481–2.751)

N/A

Diabetes mellitus

1

0.782 (0.420–1.458)

1.371 (0.770–2.442)

0.804 (0.211–3.066)

0.172

Hypertension

1

1.311 (0.755–2.275)

1.090 (0.638–1.860)

1.022 (0.333–3.135)

0.777

Hypercholesterolemia

1

0.741 (0.408–1.347)

0.834 (0.471–1.477)

0.435 (0.090–2.094)

0.615

MAST (Positive)

1

1.037 (0.642–1.674)

0.910 (0.573–1.445)

0.869 (0.298–2.539)

0.334